Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary Data: Data collected firsthand by researcher

Secondary data: Data retrieved from books, journals etc

1. QUESTIONNAIRES

These are a collection of questions that the respondents complete on their own. They are used when factual information is required. When opinions are required an opinionnaire is used. This is constructed in a similar manner as a questionnaire. A questionnaire is used with all research designs. There are approximately three ways in which a questionnaire can be administered:

1. Personally
2. Via the telephone
3. Via the mail

2.  INTERVIEWS

These can either be structured or unstructured. They comprise a group of questions administered to the respondent face to face. The structured interviews comprise a set of precisely formulated questions, which are asked of a respondent. The unstructured interviews allow the respondent to respond to a stimulus question. It is very informal and allows for the respondent to speak for as long as he/she wants. These are used in qualitative research and case studies, but can be useful in surveys especially social
surveys.

3. OBSERVATION 

Observation is the systematic noting and recording of events, behaviors, and artifacts (objects) in the social setting chosen for study. The observational record is frequently referred to as field notes - detailed, nonjudgmental, concrete descriptions of what has been observed. For studies relying exclusively on observation, the researcher makes no special effort to have a particular role in the setting; to be tolerated as an unobtrusive observer is enough. Observation can range from a highly structured, detailed notation of behavior structured by checklists to a moreholistic description of events and behavior.

4. ATTITUDE OR SENTIMENT SCALES

These are used to measure attitudes, beliefs and opinions of a respondent. They can be used with all types of research, but more specifically with surveys and action research.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Research Instruments

A Research Instrument is designed specifically to collect data to provide answers for a given research question.

 Questionnaire

  Strengths

§  Facilitates data collection of large population

§  Less time consuming than other methods

§  Allows for anonymous responses

§ Is easily administered

Weaknesses

• Not very economical (paper expenses etc)
• Does not allow for probing responses
• Responses can be misleading (especially if researchers are not around to clarify)
• Limitations posed by the literacy of the respondents

Interview

STRENGTHS

• Provides in-depth information
• Allows the researcher more flexibility
• Can yield a high volume of data

WEAKNESSES

•  May result in unnecessary information
•  Can be affected by researcher's biases
•  Can be time consuming
• Data collection is heavily dependent on the respondent’s schedule
• The respondent’s memory can be poor, yielding inaccurate information.

Observation

STRENGTHS

• Facilitates the collection of primary data
• Comparatively lessens respondents bias and possible interference
• It can yield a high volume of data
• It allows for researcher flexibility

WEAKNESSES

• Can be affected by researcher's bias
• Reactions of the respondents may be misinterpreted
• Important and relevant data may be missed as chosen times of observation may not be    appropriate or even significant
• May be affected by Observer’s Paradox where the person being observed exhibits behaviour they feel is expected.

Evaluating Reliability and Validity

Note Taking Basics

“Studies on memory have shown that, without review, 47% of what a person has just learned is forgotten in the first twenty minutes and 62% is forgotten after the first day. Therefore, having good  notes to review can determine how well you are able to perform on exams.”

1. Prepare for Class

• You need to have all the materials necessary for taking notes, i.e pens, pencils, highlighters, notebook etc. Teachers often make comments like, "This is an important concept." Or, "Make sure you understand this." These are direct clues that this will more than likely be on an exam. Highlighting these notes will help remind you later that this is definitely something you need to know.
• You may want to consider using a three-ring binder instead of a spiral or bound book. Pages can be easily removed for reviewing. Handouts can be inserted into your notes for cross-referencing. You can insert your own out-of-class notes in the correct order (Ellis).
• You must read assigned material and previous class notes before class. Make notations about material or concepts you don't understand. Look up vocabulary words that are unfamiliar to you. You will have a better understanding about what the instructor is lecturing about and that will allow you to better decipher the more important points of the lecture.

2.  Sharpen your listening skills.

"Learn how to listen and you will prosper even from those who talk badly." -- Plutarch (A.D. 46 - 120). Greek biographer and philosopher

• Start by entering the classroom with a positive attitude. Going to class thinking, "This is the last place I want to be today" only sets the stage for internal noise. Approaching lectures with a positive attitude allows one to be open-minded and enables you to get the most out of the information presented.
• Make a conscious effort to pay attention. Concentrate on concentrating. "Without concentration there is no focus, and without focus there is no learning”.
• Adapt to whatever direction a lesson/lecture takes. When a lesson/lecture takes an unexpected detour, say a student asks a question you aren't particularly interested in, students have a tendency to "zone out." However the lesson/lecture may get back on track five minutes later and you would have missed crucial information that should have been noted.

3. Develop a notetaking strategy  that works for you.

"Learn, compare, collect the facts." - Ivan Petrovic Pavlov (1849 - 1936), Russian physiologist.

In order to increase your notetaking speed and comprehension, fine-tune the structure and organization of your notes later.

• Start each new lesson/lecture on a new page, and date and number each page. The sequence of material is important.
• Write on one side of the paper only. You can set them out side-by-side for easier reviewing when studying for an exam.
• Leave blank spaces. This allows you to add comments or note questions later.
• Make your notes as brief as possible. "Never use a sentence when you can use a phrase, or a phrase when you can use a word" (Berkeley). For example, The food of the tainos, the caribs, the Axtecs, the Incas and the Mayas, we may say the food of the Amerindians.
• Develop a system of abbreviations and symbols you can use wherever possible. And=&, the=t ,
• Note all unfamiliar vocabulary or concepts you don't understand. This reminds you to look them up later.
• For examples of popular notetaking formats, see Notetaking Systems at http://www.sas.calpoly.edu/asc/ssl/notetaking.systems.html

4. Play close attention to content.

"There is a great difference between knowing a thing and understanding it." - Charles Kettering (1876 - 1958), American electrical engineer and inventor

Knowing what and how much to write down is sometimes difficult. Rely on some of the following tips for what to include in your notes.

• Details, facts, or explanations that expand or explain the main points that are mentioned. Don't forget examples.
• Definitions, word for word.
• Enumerations or lists of things that are discussed. 
• Material written on the chalkboard or on a transparency, including drawings or charts. 
• Information that is repeated or spelled out. (University of Texas at Austin)

5. Review and edit your notes.

"Ideas won't keep; something must be done about them." - Alfred North Whitehead (1861 - 1947), English mathematician and philosopher

Academic skills centers and other authorities on effective study skills consider reviewing and editing class notes to be the most important part of notetaking and essential to increasing learning capacity.

• It is extremely important to review your notes within 24 hours. 
• Edit for words and phrases that are illegible or don't make sense. Write out abbreviated words that might be unclear later.
• Edit with a different colored pen to distinguish between what you wrote in class and what you filled in later. 
• Fill in key words and questions in the left-hand column. 
• Note anything you don't understand by underlining or highlighting to remind you to ask the instructor.
• Compare your notes with the textbook reading and fill in important details in the blank spaces you left.
• Consider rewriting or typing up your notes. (Ellis).