Language (Dialectal) Variation

Language Variation or Dialectal Variation, refers to changes in language due to various influences. These include, social, geographic, individual and group factors.
Dialect
This refers to the variety of language characteristic of a particualar group of people in a given speech community (country) or region. For example one may refer to a Caribbean dialect as there are certain vocabulary items and sentence structures that Caribbean countries have in common.
Creole
There is no definition of creole that is accepted by all. The meaning of the word 'creole' has changed considerably over the years. However, it is normally used to refer to a dialect or language which results from contact between the language of a colonizing people and the language of a colonized people. In the Caribbean, Creole languages are as a result of contact between English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch (languages of the colonizers) and West African languages (languages of the colonized).
Patois
Patois is a word of French origin which translates most closely, in French, to mean 'gibbrish'. It was a word used to describe how foreign and strange Creole languages sounded to the speakers of European languages. Patois is used to refer to a geographical dialect which differs from the standard language spoken in a given country. In Jamaica, for example, the word patois is used to refer to the English based creole spoken. Patois carries the usual negative associations and lack of prestige which characterize non-standard, rural or regional dialects.
Standard Variety (Eg, English, French)
This is the variety of language or dialect that is used for formal, official and education purposes. It is also used as an instrument for mass education and communication causing it to acquire greater prestige and uniformity. (Creoles have been observed to lack uniformity as a result of not being standardized.) Most Caribbean countries have a Eurpoean language as its standard variety for formal, official purposes and a Creole language for informal communication amongst native, family and friends. The notable exception is Haiti where the French Creole was made an official language alongside French.
Slang
This is a popular, fashionable use of words and phrases which may be either old words given new meaning or completely new words. In the same way that fashion changes, so do slang expressions. Slang is a normal part of everyday speech but may not be acceptable in certain formal settings. When used in formal writing, in particular, these expressions should be put in inverted commas (For e.g, 'wicked'- Jamaican slang for good/amazing, 'off the chain'-American slang for exciting/good)
Foreign English
This refers to varieties of the English language spoken by persons not from ones country.
Rasta English
This refers to a special variety of English indegenous to Jamaica, spoken by a religious group of persons called Rastafarians. This variety diffrentiates itself from standard and non-standard English by use of different, specialized vocabulary items. The psychology of 'no contradiction' extends to all aspects of a Rastafarian's life, including language. Hence because it sounds contradictory for oppress -/up-res/ to mean held down in life, Rastafarians refer to this verb as downpress. Likewise instead of participation -/part-icipation/ to mean being fully involved they refer to this noun as fullticipation. The language is also characterized by use of 'I' to signify positivity and the importance of the individual in relation to another, so instead of 'You and I', Rasta would refer to us as 'I and I' to signify that we are both equal in importance. Irie, refers to a good vibe and Ital food refers to food considered good for the body (i.e, Vegetarian based food).

Listening Comprehension-Answers

Question 1
MAIN IDEA-Havanna has had an eventful history which is reflected in its contrasting and varied architecture.(3  marks)

Question 2
Any FOUR of the following:
-cracked concrete blocks
-collapsing buildings
-peeling art deco treasures
-battered buildings
-ornate balconies hanging on by mossy threads
(4 marks)

Question 3
TWO marks for any TWO of the following (ONE for example & ONE for device)
-Hyperbole-'ornate balconies hang on by mossy threads'
-Contrast:
(i) 'Beautifully restored colonial mansions...with collapsing buildings'
(ii) 'Beautiful but battered buildings'
(iii) 'Peeling art deco treasures against brand-new smoked-glass shopping centres.'
-Personification-'...buildings have been shaped by the elements.'
-Metaphor-mossy threads
-Alliteration:
(i) 'soar skyward'
(ii) 'beautiful but battered buildings'
(4 marks)

Question 4
ONE mark foe each of any FOUR of the following:
-cracked concrete
-elegant single-storey houses
-brand-new smoked-glass shopping centres
-battered buildings
(4 marks)

Literary devices commonly used in Paper 1B -Listening comprehension

INSTRUCTIONS:

This paper consists of FOUR questions. You will be given 5 minutes to read through the questions in this paper. The examiner will then read to you an extract from a piece of communication. You will be given 20 minutes to respond in writing to the questions. The extract will be read twice. You will be allowed to make notes while you listen to the extract.

Write down these questions on Havana & proceed to the clip:

1. State the MAIN idea of the extract in ONE sentence of no more than 20 words. (3 marks)

2. Identify FOUR details about Havana which support the claim that 'the years have taken toll on its architectural riches'. (4 marks)

3a. Identify TWO literary devices used in this extract. (2 marks)

3b. Give ONE example of EACH literary device you have identified in 3a. (2 marks)

4. State FOUR details of the physical setting presented in this extract. (4 marks)

A. CONTRAST

The two widely differing elements are contrasted using a common value to convey further information about one or both elements. The differences between them often intensify either their positive or negative qualities. They frequently will be opposites. For example the warmth of the Caribbean with the cold winter of the United States (comparison point temperature). Contrasts also can be metaphorical.

B. IRONY
Irony is the contrast between what is expected or what appears to be and what actually is. For example, ‘A clumsy ballet dancer.’
Verbal Irony (sarcasm is the tone of voice/writing)
The contrast between what is said and what is actually meant. For example, He did an excellent job of making a mess.
Irony of Situation
This refers to a happening that is the opposite of what is expected or intended. For Example: The wedding of a son causes a marital breakdown for the parents.

C. DEVICES OF COMPARISON
 METAPHOR 
Compares by stating the element is the item of comparison e.g. The lawyer’s claws were out and he would not stop until they drew blood,
ANALOGY
Extends a metaphor to compare a situation or particularly to explain a complex item by using a familiar item to structure the explanation. E.g. Exam preparation is like baking a cake all the ingredients must be used and preparations thorough before baking. Firstly the ingredients: study which is lightened with periods of recreation, physical health, managing stress. (The analogy would continue for several paragraphs even)

SIMILE
Compares two unlike objects using like, as, resembles, looked as though etc. e.g. His exam worries even after the event were as if a rat was gnawing at his brain.

PERSONIFICATION
Compares non-human, inanimate elements OR abstract concepts to using HUMAN qualities e.g. The building stared down at him daring him to enter OR Justice is never kindly but it is ruthlessly fair. If the qualities are not human then the comparison is a metaphor e.g. A beast of a car.
ALLUSION
Making reference to familiar classical, biblical, historical or other well known cultural events. For example: Writers often allude to Anansi-like cunning.

D. DEVICES OF EMPHASIS 
HYPERBOLE
Exaggerates qualities of an element or an overstatement (sometimes for comedic effect). For Example: I am so hungry I could eat a cow.
REPETITION
Uses repetition of either words, phrases or even a whole sentence. For Example: What if I do not make it, what if I cannot pass, what if I fail?
DEVICES USING SOUND
Alliteration – The repetition of initial consonant sounds –barely blowing by
Assonance – The repetition of similar vowel sounds- grows below grounds
Onomatopoeia - the word sounds like the sound- the hooting of the owls, the drip of water.

Language and 'a language'

Difference between 'Language' and 'a language'
Language refers to a system of communication unique to human beings that makes use of written and vocal symbols. A language, on the other hand is a subcategory of this type of communication peculiar to a particular people, region, geographical region or socio-political background. For example, Creole languages are largely spoken in the Caribbean and Hindi largely spoken in India.
 In other words Language refers to the system of human communication and is a more general term than a language which is a given variety spoken by a given speech community (read country). The distinction is usually made by capitalizing the 'L' of the more general term.
Creole as a Languages
Creoles are considered languages as they meet the general requirements of a language. They are:
1. Human
2. Systematic
3. Complex
4. Symbolic
5. Evolutionary/Maturational
6. Arbitrary (In their assignment of meaning to symbols)
Characteristics of Creole Languages: Jamaican Creole & Standard English
*Lexifier language: Language from which the majority of lexical (vocabulary) items are derived.
Creoles vary from their Lexifier (European) languages in many ways. Some of those aspects are listed below:
1. Grammar
Creoles make use of unmarked or bare nouns, verbs and pronouns. Inflection is usually indicated by use of a particle. Examples:
                    English                                 Jamaican Creole
Bare Noun:  Boy+s (pl)                            Boy dem (pl)  (dem is a particle that indicates plural)
Bare Verb:   Ran (past)                            Did/Ben run (past) (Did/Ben are particles that indicate past tense)
Bare Pronoun: Its colour (possessive)     Fi it colour ('Fi' is the particle that indicates possession/ownership)
2. Sound 
Consonant Clusters
Certain sound combinations that are allowed in English are not permissible in Creole and must change in order to conform to the rules of pronunciation. For example, Creoles do not accept consonant clusters beginning words. Hence, *Sm sounds as in Smith are broken up by a vowel to produce  --> Sumith. Words with *Th sounds as in thin drop the 'h' sound to produce tin and them becomes dem etc.
Metathesis
In some Creoles, namely JC certain sounds are switched around. So, 'film' for example becomes flim, 'ask' becomes aks etc. This is referred to as metathesis.
3. Vocabulary
Though they get a significant portion of their lexicon (vocabulary) from European language, creoles have different words to refer to the same object/referent in English. For example, 'girl' in English is 'gyal' in JC; 'child' is 'pikni' and 'eat' is 'nyam' etc.
4. Semantics
Words in English take on different or additional meaning in Creole. This is seen clearly in the naming of Jamaican body parts. For example, foot in JC is used to refer to the entire leg, calf, ankle and foot in English. Jc does not make those above mentioned distinctions in English. In JC 'tears' are referred to as 'eye water', Trinidad refers to the fruit 'guinep' as 'chenet' and the list goes on...

Conclusion: Creole as a language is human, complex, symbolic etc, in its own merit. What other examples of differences between Creole and Lexifier can you identify?